Unit 8- Design Decisions: How can I make better design decisions?

Unit 8- Design Decisions: How can I make better design decisions?

1. Factor of Safety
The principle of adding new elements into its construction to offset the effects of unknown variables and       prevent system failure.
Factor of safety is also known as factor of ignorance.
This principle is implemented to minimize the probability of failure in a design.
New design produced must has large factor of safety to overcome the large number of unknown variables.

Example:

Factor of safety design principle is implemented in blade utility knife, which the blade can be fixed in a certain length when using it to avoid any accident. The fixation of the blade is the new elements added to the blade utility knife to offset the effect of injuring users.

2. Redundancy
The use of more elements in a system to maintain its performance if one or more elements has failed to perform.
Redundancy is a method to prevent a 'whole' system failure.
There are four kinds of redundancy: diverse, homogenous, active and passive:
(i) Diverse redundancy is the use of multiple elements of different types, which can resist a single cause of failure.
(ii) Homogenous redundancy is the use of multiple elements of single type, which easily influences other failure of elements.
(iii) Active redundancy is the application of redundant elements, which allows for single element failure, repair, substitution, resulting in minimal disruption of system performance.
(iv) Passive redundancy is the application of redundant elements only if the active element fails.

Example:

Redundancy design principle is implemented when one of the brake malfunction, for example handbrake is malfunctioning, leg brake is used to stop the car. The hydrolic brake system and handbrake system is the diverse redundancy, which a car possess two different types of brake system that can resist single cause of failure.

3. Flexibility-Usability Tradeoff
It explains that a system with high flexibility will decrease its usability.
Flexible designs can perform more functions but the functions will be performed less effeciently as flexible designs are more difficult to use.

Example:

This Casio scientific calculator is a flexible design because it perform more functions but those functions are performed less efficiently. The flexibility of the scientific calculator is higher compared to the normal calculator, whereas the usability of the scientific calculator decreases with its numerous types of function.

5. Satisficing
Satisficing is also known as the enemy of good design.
Best design decision is not always the optimal design decision.
A success design, in certain circumstances, is served by design decision that is 'satisfy'.
There are three kinds of problems for which satisficing should be considered:
(i) Complex design problem- Characterized by large number of interacting variables and unknowns. Satisficer recognize that the complexity and unknowns makes an optimal solution unlikely. Satisficer seeks an alternative satisfactory solution.
(ii) Time-limited problem- Characterize by time frames that do not permit adequate analysis of optimal solution. Satisfacer selects the first solution that meets the design requirements satisfactorily.
(iii) Solutions beyond the satisfactory yield diminishing returns- Knowledge of design requirements is needed to know which satisfactory is best. Optimal specifications will not consume design resources unless they are critical to success and accorded value by users.

Example:

The design of a nail cutter is satisfied for user to use although it is not the optimal design decision as it could cause minor damage to the user's nail.

6. Ockham's Razor
It explains that the assets that simplicity is preferred to complexity in design.
Unnecessary weight (physical, visual or cognitive) degrades the performance because it has the potential to create problems.
It emphasizes in cleaner design to produce a purer result.

Example:

The watch on the right shows purer result because its design is cleaner than the watch on the left. Therefore, a good simpler design product is preferred.

7. Form Follows Function
The primary goal of a design is its intended function or purpose.
It can be interpreted into two ways: descriptive and prescriptive.
(i) Descriptive interpretation is based on the belief that form follows function in nature. Functional criteria presents a more clearer criteria for the judgement of quality.
(ii) Prescriptive interpretation is likely derived from descriptive interpretation. Functional considerations should be the primary consideration to aesthetic considerations in a design.

Example:

The form of the pencil case follow its function of storing stationary. The form of the pencil case is designed to store stationary and thus the form is suitable for its function.

Unit 7 – Design and Appeal: How can I increase the appeal of a design?

1. Aesthetic-usability Effect

An aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use compare to the less aesthetic design. This is a phenomenon in which people believe that a more aesthetic designs is easier to use compare to less aesthetic designs whether they are actually easy to use or not.

Aesthetic play a role in design which can fostering positive attitude towards the user. It is common for the user to remember the designs which they have positive attitude and good feelings compare to the design they have negative feelings.

The relationship of user and the object will affect the effectiveness of interaction between the user and the designs. User with  positive feelings towards a design tend to have better creative thinking and problem solving.

Aesthetic design perceived to be more easy to use and promote creative thinking and problem solving. Besides that, it also nurture a positive relationship to the user.

For example:

Both of the picture show a different design of a product to keep garment for washing. The red colour is a design of lady bird is more aesthetic than the normal blue design. Both of the usability is the same, but an aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use compare to the less aesthetic design but actually they both are the same. The lady bird design create a positive relationship than the normal design.

2. Archetypes

This is a universal  pattern of theme and a typical example or form resulting from an innate biases or disposition.

For example:

An example is the Advertisement of Shell, the Shell use the car of Ferrari, which is the archetype in this advertisement. Ferrari is a high class sport car, it is a archetype for all people. In the advertisement after using the oil of Shell, your car performance will be like the Ferrari.

3. Entry point

This is  a point where user physically or attentional entry into a design. As a user we will judge a design using our first impression on it. An impression will influence the following attitude and behaviour. There are a few elements to have a good entry point for design. There are minimal barriers, points of prospect and progressive lures.

(i) Minimal barriers

Barriers should not hinder the entry point of a design. We should minimum the barriers. For example, a noisy display and unnecessary elements in front of a shop or a salesperson in front of a shop which blocking user to getting through an entry point. Barriers can be aesthetics and functional in reality. For example, a landscape in front of a hotel.

(ii) Points of prospect

The entry points should have a good view for the user to have a good look for the environment. There should not be any obstacles that block the view of the entry point.  A good point of prospect should have enough time for good overview and less of disruption such as noisy environment and crowded place.

(iii) Progressive lures

This should act as a lure to attract the people to the entry point. For example, the LED display advertisement in front of a restaurant is a progressive lure which attract people to the restaurant.

For example:

All Joy food store portrays the design principle of entry point. It has a minimal barrier that allows customers to order their food and the barrier is not hindering the entry point of design. The front view of All Joy food store is portrayed with points of prospect, which the entry points have a good view for the user to have a good look for the environment. The food menu printed on the screen is the progressive lures. It attracts customers to the entry point.

4. Mimicry

This is mimicking a familiar objects, organisms or environment   to improve the usability and functional of an object. There are three types of mimicry in design which are surface, behavioural, and functional.

(i) Surface mimicry

This is to make an object to like something else. When something is design to familiar object, the user can implies the function by the way of it looks which is the surface.

For example:

Users can imply the function of rubbish bin that throwing unwanted files and documents into the recycle bin, which is similar to the real world that users throw rubbish into the rubbish bin.

(ii) Behavioural mimicry
This is to design an object to act like something else.  For example, the programme DEEP BLUE is mimicking the behaviour of a person in playing chess.

For example:

The emotion icon is an example of behavioural mimicry design. The smiley face, sad face, angry face expression and more are mimicry the human behaviour expression.

(iii) Functional mimicry
This is to design an object function like something else.

                        The keyboard input style of a smartphone mimics the keypad of labtops.

5. Color

Color is used in design to attract attention, group elements, indicate meaning, and enhance aesthetics. There are a few guidelines need to follow when using colors, number of colors, color combination, saturation and symbolism.

(i) Number of color

Limit the color use in a design. The eye cannot process too much color in one glance. Do not use color as the only means to impart information.

Example:

Only one color, green is used for the main page of a smartphone to decrease the complexity of the design.

(ii) Color Combinations

Follow the adjacent color in the color wheel to create an aesthetic color combination. Use warmer colors for foreground elements, and cooler colors for background elements. Light grey is a safe color to use for grouping elements without competing with other colors.

Example:

                                           Cooler colors are used for the mobile applications

(iii) Saturation

Saturated color is used when it is needed to attract attention. Use desaturated colors when performance and efficiency are the priority.
Example:

            Saturated color, red color can be easily attracted by drivers in order to stop their cars.

(iv) Symbolism

Color has different symbol for different culture. So, have a look for the meaning of color for a particular target audience.

Example:

                                  For the Chinese culture, red color brings the symbolism of good luck and fortune.

6. Exposure effect

When a stimuli is repeatedly exposed , people tend to increase the likeabilty towards the stimuli. The exposure effect is observed with music, paintings, drawings, images, people, and advertisements.  The strongest exposure effect is with the photographs, meaningful words, names and simple shapes. Exposure effect is to strengthen advertising and marketing campaigns. Familiarity plays a primary role in aesthetic appeal and acceptance; people like things more when frequently exposed to them.

Example:

The Gangnam Style is a very famous song. The song is act as the stimuli which repeatedly expose to people, which this increases the likeability towards the song.The popularity of the song, Gangnam Style is very high because it was exposed repeatedly through television show, radio show and etc.

Unit 6 – Design and Usability: How can I enhance the usability of a design?

1. Constraint

This is design principle to limit the possible actions that can be performed on an object or system.
There are two types of constraint.
-Physical constraint
-Psychological constraint

1.1 Physical constraints included paths, axes and barriers.

1.1.1 Path change the applied forces into linear motion or curvilinear motions using channels and                 grooves.

                                           

This is a controller in the fridge which have a linear motion of constraint to adjust the coldness in the fridge.The linear motion is constricted the movement only for left or right to adjust the coldness in the fridge

1.1.2 Axes change the applied forces into rotary motion, providing a control surface of infinite length in a small spaces.

                

Both of this controller is  fan controller and air conditional controller. Both of this have a axes change that apply into rotary motions.The rotary motions can turn in 360 degree for the user to adjust.

1.1.3 Barriers is to prevent or deflect the the applied forces therefore halting and slowing the forces around the barrier.

The USB port have its own design which act as a barrier to make sure user to insert the USB into the  USB port in a correct position. Incorrect position the USB cannot plug in the port, because of the design in the USB have a specific design to fit in a correct position.

1.2 Psychological constraints limit the range of possible actions by leveraging the way people perceive and think about the world. There are three types of psychological constraints which are symbols, conventions, and mappings.

1.2.1 Symbols influence the behaviour through communicating by the text and the icon on a warning  sign. Symbols is useful in labelling and warning using visual.

Example:

     

The symbol mean the product is fragile. This is constraint the user to handle it with care to prevent any damage to the product.

1.2.2 Conventions influence the behaviour by traditional practices for example" red mean stop, green            mean go".

Example:

                                                

This is the example of convention psychological constraint. The symbol show the play, pause, forward and backward using the convention symbol. The symbol is convention to all of the user that which is the play button which is the stop button.

Convention symbol is used so that easy for all the user to understand.

1.2.3 Mapping is to perceived the relationship between the elements. The switches that is nearer to the light is more related compare to the switches that is far away. Mapping  is use to perceived the elements and implying what action are possible based on the visibility, location and appearance of controls.

Example:

The arrow button is a mapping where the arrow point. The arrow place in a good direction which the up arrow is at the upper part and down arrow at the bottom. Besides that the left and right arrow also place with a good mapping.

2. Cost Benefit
This design principle is about that an activity will be pursued if the benefits are equal or greater than the cost.How much reading is too much to get the point of a message? How many steps are too many to set the time and date of a video recorder? How long is too long for a person to wait for a Web page to download? This is all depend on the benefit and the cost of user which they put in. If a passage is too long just to get the main point of a few lines, user will feel not worthy.

Example:

This two cans have different design to open the cover. The can at the left side is easy to open just by pulling up the ring. On the other hand, the right side can need to have a can opener to open the cover. In term of cost benefit, the can that is easier to open is better because it requires less effort from the user to open it.

3. Visibility
The visibility of a system is good when its status and methods of use is clearly presented to the user. Systems are more usable when they clearly indicate their status, the possible actions that can be performed, and the consequences of the actions once performed

 

For example:

The device show a goof visibility about it status.   In this device the battery shown green light to indicate that the battery is still enough, when the power is less the light will change into red colour to indicate user to recharge the device. Besides that, the blue colour light indicate that the device wifi function is switch on, the line signal is lighted up show that the device is receiving signal.

4.Progressive disclosure
 This is a strategy to only display the necessary or requested information instead of displaying all the information that will create a complexity to the user. This method is to manage the information complexity and prevent information overload. This design keeps the display clean and simple for the user. So this can avoid user becoming confused, frustrated and disoriented.

For example:

The Adobe software(yellow box) can choose the chapter to display the information that I needed. This can keep all the unnecessary information to the user instead of showing all the information.

5. Iconic Representation
The use of pictorial images to make actions, objects, and concepts in a display. The images is use to improve the recognition and recall of signs and controls.

There are  four types of icons. Similar icons, Example icons, Symbolic icons and Arbitrary icons.
Example of similar icons:

This is a car air conditional controller. The symbol show where the air con valve open. This is a similar icon to show simple action where the air con valve blow. The arrow  indicating the direction of the air-condition, which located at the leg or the face. So we can choose the direction of air condition by looking at the symbol.

Example of symbolic icons:

The is a car key controller. The lock button and unlock button is an example of symbolic icon. This can indicate which button is to lock and unlock the car.

Example of arbitrary icons:

This sign is an arbitrary icon. This images that bear little or no relationship to the action,object, and concept. This sign is mean to recycle the product. The meaning of this sign need to learn and have no direct meaning with the symbol.

Example of  example icon:

     

This is an example icon which associated with an object, in this case is a bicycle. This sign indicate the lane is  a bicycle lane. The icon is use to represent the bicycle lane.

6. Wayfinding
This usually happens during the process of using spatial and environmental information to navigate to a destination.
This involve four stages which are Orientation, Route Decision, Route Monitoring, and Destination Recognition.
Orientation means to determine one's location to the nearby object or destination.
Route Decision is refer to choosing the right path to the destination.
Route Monitoring is to monitor the route decided leading to the destination.
Destination Recognition is to recognize the destination.

Example for wayfinding:

This is an advertisement poster that using a map in wayfinding to locate the place of the shop.

The GPS application also show a wayfingding by showing the route options and destination by choosing the best options to reach the final destination.

Unit 5 – Design and Learning: How can I help people learn from a design?

1. Chunking
Chunking is a method to combine the information into a group of chunk, so that we can easier to process and remember. When we perform chunking we store the information in short term memory. For example a string of letter, word or series of numbers.

This is an example of chunking when an individual performing a memory task by chunking.

Individuals are able to remember a telephone number when they break it into 3 parts. It's easier to remember in short term compared to a long term.
Chunking is often applied as a general technique to simplify designs. When apply this principle in design chunk the information that is needed to be recall or required and used in problem solving and not chunk the information needed to be searched.


2. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and natural occurring. Classical conditioning usually is used in animal training.

This is an example for classical conditioning in training an animal:

But this technique can be apply in the design principle. Images that is attractive will stimulate a good and pleasant feelings and effect. In the other hand, disturbing images will give a negative impact of feeling. Thus, many products and services they show a good images in their product. By using this technique the product can be associate with the images to give a suitable emotions towards the user.

Example:

When you ask me which broadband is the fastest, I will answer Celcom. This is because the advertisement  with Usian Bolt make me feel that Celcom broardband is the fastest. This is a classical conditioning due to the picture give me positive effect which in this case is the speed.
                       
Example:

The images from the packet evokes a positive emotion toward the food product. The nice image of         the noodle will attract the user to buy the product.

3. Operant Conditioning
Method of learning which is depended on either reinforcement or punishment. Reinforced behavior tends to continue whereas punished behavior will eventually ended.This is a  technique used to modify behavior by reinforcing desired behaviors, and ignoring or punishing undesired behaviors.

This technique also use in design principle. Positive reinforcement increase the probability of behaviour with a positive condition. For example, push the button at the traffic light is pushed so that pedestrian can know about the time they cross the road which is a very important for own safety. This is a positive reinforcement which involve the visual needed and their own safety. Thus, user will push the button everytime they cross the road.

Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior by associating the behavior
with the removal of a negative condition.

For example, the icon in the dash board shown in yellow circle will stop blinking when the passenger is fastened their seatbelt. The behaviour of fastening seat belt is to remove the negative condition which is the blinking of the icon.

                                                                      

This is an example of design with positive reinforcement. To cross the road safety we have to push the button so that we can know the time limit we have (shown  below picture with a yellow box). This is a positive reinforcement for people to use push the button to have better safety.

4. Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall information that is presented first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect), eg. in a list, than presented in the middle.For visual stimuli, items presented early in a list have the greatest influence;they are not only better recalled, but influence the interpretation of later items.For auditory stimuli, items late in a list have the greatest influence. However, ifmultiple presentations of information are separated in time, and a person mustmake a selection decision soon after the last presentation, the recency effecthas the greatest influence on the decision.

PICTURE 1                                                                   PICTURE 2

                                                      PICTURE  3

For example:

 The menu of drive-thru in the MCD is a good example of serial position effect. The other menu is the alacart menu which is not the main selling point of MCD is placed in front that show in the PICTURE 1, the main menu which is the set menu is placed last before the order place and in front of the order place showed in the PICTURE 2 and PICTURE 3. To make decision after present the menu, the recency effect has the greatest influence on the decision. This can influence customer to order the set meal to increase their profit.

5. Picture Superior Effect
Picture is worth than a thousand word.The effect that occurs when individuals remembered more with a shown picture rather than only words.

Example:

 Another example is the user manual that for the small rice cooker.

The instruction given from the manual using visual (picture) and words to explain. This will lead the user easily to understand and remember the steps given because of the picture shown.

This is another example use of the picture superiority effect. This is a name card of a construction company.

This company create a logo which is the picture shown below so that the user remember the company easily instead of using only their name  on the name card.

6. Forgiveness
This consists an action that making something reversible or recoverable to minimize consequence of errors. Human error is inevitable, principle of forgiveness is to provide a sense of security and stability for the user to use the system or product.
Example:


The water vending machine have a button to retrieve the money if the user change their mind after insert their money.

Photoshop programme also have a undo button  in the yellow boxes to reverse any move. This can prevent any mistakes or undo the move.

Microsoft words have the function of redo and undo shown in the yellow box. This function is a forgiveness design to prevent user to undo or redo their move.